【尝试翻译】英国为参加一战后和会准备的资料之波兰历史
在1917年英国外交部为参加一战后的和会特地成立了一个部门用以收集参加会议需要的资料，就许多国家和地区的历史和地理资料进行了详细的收集。这些资料在巴黎和会后出版。现在LZ准备尝试翻译一下其中的第43号报告《波兰：历史概述，1569-1815 年》（实际上是一本小册子），希望大神们予以指点
Polish boundaries in the 16thcentury
ThePoland of the 16th century was a very different country from thatwhich we are accustomed to have in mind when question of modern interest arisein connection with it. In those days it comprised at least four or five timesas much territory as it does at present; and ,when Lithuania was added to it bythe Union of Lublin in 1569,the state found itself about doubled. The boundariesof those days were of course vague in the extreme, and Lithuania was largely a “geographicalexpression”, which covered very much more ground than it was, strictly speaking,entitled to; but we may take it that in about 1560 the western boundary ofPoland proper ran south-west from a point some 50 miles west of Danzig forabout 200 miles towards the Oder; thence the frontier ran south-east and upagain in a northerly direction, so as to include the whole of Galicia, Moldaviaand Podolia, the Ukraine nearly up to Dnieper, Volhynia, West Polesia,
ModernPoland, Grodno, Kovno and Courland, leaving only about half of EastPrussia(including Konigsberg) to the Teutonic Knights. The Lithuania that wasadded included White Russia and nearly all the basins of the Dnieper and Dvina,whilst Livonia belonged equally to Poland and to Lithuania.
十六世纪的波兰边界
16世纪的波兰与我们习惯用考虑现代利益的问题时常联系起来的国家相比是一个非常不同的国家，在那些日子里她包括现在她大部分领土的四到五倍，并且，当立陶宛在1569年的卢布林条约中加入联盟后，该国发现自己扩大了一倍。在那个时代边界当然是极度模糊的，并且立陶宛基本上是一个“地理概念”，严格来讲涵盖了非常多的超出她本身法理的土地；但我们可以认为在1560年左右波兰的西部边界从但泽以西50英里的方向向西南延伸了大约200英里直到奥得河，之后边界向东南和北方延伸，包括了整个加利西亚，摩尔达维亚和波多利亚，靠近第聂伯河的乌克兰，沃里尼亚，西波利西亚，现在的波兰，格罗德诺，考纳斯和库尔兰，留下只有大约一半的东普鲁士（包括哥尼斯堡）给条顿骑士团。立陶宛增加了包括白俄罗斯和几乎所有的第聂伯河和德维纳河流域的领土，同时波兰和立陶宛平等的拥有利沃尼亚。
ThePoland of the 16th century was a very different country from thatwhich we are accustomed to have in mind when question of modern interest arisein connection with it. In those days it comprised at least four or five timesas much territory as it does at present; and ,when Lithuania was added to it bythe Union of Lublin in 1569,the state found itself about doubled. The boundariesof those days were of course vague in the extreme, and Lithuania was largely a “geographicalexpression”, which covered very much more ground than it was, strictly speaking,entitled to; but we may take it that in about 1560 the western boundary ofPoland proper ran south-west from a point some 50 miles west of Danzig forabout 200 miles towards the Oder; thence the frontier ran south-east and upagain in a northerly direction, so as to include the whole of Galicia, Moldaviaand Podolia, the Ukraine nearly up to Dnieper, Volhynia, West Polesia,
ModernPoland, Grodno, Kovno and Courland, leaving only about half of EastPrussia(including Konigsberg) to the Teutonic Knights. The Lithuania that wasadded included White Russia and nearly all the basins of the Dnieper and Dvina,whilst Livonia belonged equally to Poland and to Lithuania.
十六世纪的波兰边界
16世纪的波兰与我们习惯用考虑现代利益的问题时常联系起来的国家相比是一个非常不同的国家，在那些日子里她包括现在她大部分领土的四到五倍，并且，当立陶宛在1569年的卢布林条约中加入联盟后，该国发现自己扩大了一倍。在那个时代边界当然是极度模糊的，并且立陶宛基本上是一个“地理概念”，严格来讲涵盖了非常多的超出她本身法理的土地；但我们可以认为在1560年左右波兰的西部边界从但泽以西50英里的方向向西南延伸了大约200英里直到奥得河，之后边界向东南和北方延伸，包括了整个加利西亚，摩尔达维亚和波多利亚，靠近第聂伯河的乌克兰，沃里尼亚，西波利西亚，现在的波兰，格罗德诺，考纳斯和库尔兰，留下只有大约一半的东普鲁士（包括哥尼斯堡）给条顿骑士团。立陶宛增加了包括白俄罗斯和几乎所有的第聂伯河和德维纳河流域的领土，同时波兰和立陶宛平等的拥有利沃尼亚。
Period one 1569-1632 The Catholic reactionBy the middle of the 16th century the Polish constitution had practically assumed the form which lasted till the First Partition(1772). The chief power in the State had formerly been in the hands of the magnates and princes, but, though wealth still gave them great influence, it was now extended to the large body of petty nobles and land-owners called the szlachta. These nobles formed the army and Diets and controlled most of the administrative offices, which were tenable for life. The King was elective, and was Commander-in –chief of the army, but he could not touch the life, liberty or property of the nobles. Occasionally a strong King was able to introduce for a time a form of centralized government. But at any manifestation of kingly power it was easy for the szlachta to conjure up the spectre of absolutum dominium; or else the king’s policy was reversed by his successor, or by a sudden change in the endless dynastic wars brought about by the Polish system of elective monarchy. The King was helped to govern by a Senate and by a Diet of elected deputies. The Diet met irregularly and decisions had to be unanimous. Sometimes, when their object could not be obtained by means of the Diet, unions or “confederacies” were formed between nobles and magnates or the Diet and the King. Confederacies which failed were called rebellions(rokosz).
第一时期1569-1632 保守天主教时期
到了第十六世纪中叶，直到波兰第一次被瓜分（1772）为止，波兰宪法实际上在形式上有效。在这之前国家权力掌握在权贵和王公手中，但是，尽管财富仍给了他们很大的影响力，现在它扩展到了大量被称为施拉赫塔的小贵族和土地持有者手中。这些贵族组成了军队和国会并且控制了大部分的可以任期终身的行政机构。国王由选举产生，他是军队的总指挥，但他不能触及贵族的生命、自由和财产。偶尔有一个强大的国王能够在一段时间内在形式上组成一个中央政府。但是任何国王权力的显示使得施拉赫塔变出完全的所有权的幽灵，（这句存疑，不明白什么意思，希望大神指教）要不然就是国王的政策由他的继任者推翻，或者在由波兰的选君政体带来的无尽的王朝战争中突然改变。国王有一个元老院和一个选举产生代表的国会协助统治。国会定期召开会议并且决议必须一致才能通过，有时当贵族的目标不能由国会达成时，
将会在贵族和王公之间或是国会和国王之间产生联合会或“邦联”，失败的邦联会被称为叛乱（rokosz）
第一时期1569-1632 保守天主教时期
到了第十六世纪中叶，直到波兰第一次被瓜分（1772）为止，波兰宪法实际上在形式上有效。在这之前国家权力掌握在权贵和王公手中，但是，尽管财富仍给了他们很大的影响力，现在它扩展到了大量被称为施拉赫塔的小贵族和土地持有者手中。这些贵族组成了军队和国会并且控制了大部分的可以任期终身的行政机构。国王由选举产生，他是军队的总指挥，但他不能触及贵族的生命、自由和财产。偶尔有一个强大的国王能够在一段时间内在形式上组成一个中央政府。但是任何国王权力的显示使得施拉赫塔变出完全的所有权的幽灵，（这句存疑，不明白什么意思，希望大神指教）要不然就是国王的政策由他的继任者推翻，或者在由波兰的选君政体带来的无尽的王朝战争中突然改变。国王有一个元老院和一个选举产生代表的国会协助统治。国会定期召开会议并且决议必须一致才能通过，有时当贵族的目标不能由国会达成时，
将会在贵族和王公之间或是国会和国王之间产生联合会或“邦联”，失败的邦联会被称为叛乱（rokosz）
Catholic Influence
Duringmost of the period under discussion the Roman Catholic Church wieldedconsiderable power, and supported the King against the disruptive tendencies ofthe szlachta. Non-Roman Catholics were called Dissidents; they consistedchiefly of Protestants in the north and Russian Orthodox in the south-east.Polish intolerance towards the Dissidents, which increased towards the end ofthe period, played into the hands of Prussians and Russians across the bordersand was a cause contributory to the Partitions.
The townswere crippled by economic restrictions which, in the interest of the bigland-owners, cut them off from connection with the country districts. Theydwindled in population and importance, lost their right of representation, andfell under the control of Jews and other aliens. The peasants-comprising the massof the population-were entirely under the jurisdiction of the lords of themanors; but, unlike Russian peasants, they could hold property and could not besold; and the fact that during the 16th and 17thcenturies peasants migrated to Poland from all parts of Europe tends to showthat at that time they enjoyed a relatively superior position.
天主教的影响
在我们讨论的大多数时期，罗马天主教会具有相当大的权力，并且支持国王反对施拉赫塔的分裂性倾向。非罗马天主教徒被称为持异议者，他们主要是在北方的新教徒和在东南部的俄罗斯东正教徒。波兰不能容忍持异议者，使得直到这一时期结束为止都有利于普鲁士和俄罗斯越过波兰的边界进行入侵，并且是使得波兰被瓜分的一个原因。
城镇因经济限制而受到削弱，出于大土地所有者的利益，城镇被切断了与农村地区的联系，他们在人口上和重要性上都逐渐减小，失去了自己的代表权，并且处于犹太人和其它外国人的控制下。包括了该国的大量人口的农民完全处于庄园主的管辖范围；但是与俄国的农民不同，他们可以拥有财产并且不得被买卖；而事实上在16和17世纪农民从全欧洲迁往波兰表明了在那时他们喜欢波兰农民较好的地位。
Duringmost of the period under discussion the Roman Catholic Church wieldedconsiderable power, and supported the King against the disruptive tendencies ofthe szlachta. Non-Roman Catholics were called Dissidents; they consistedchiefly of Protestants in the north and Russian Orthodox in the south-east.Polish intolerance towards the Dissidents, which increased towards the end ofthe period, played into the hands of Prussians and Russians across the bordersand was a cause contributory to the Partitions.
The townswere crippled by economic restrictions which, in the interest of the bigland-owners, cut them off from connection with the country districts. Theydwindled in population and importance, lost their right of representation, andfell under the control of Jews and other aliens. The peasants-comprising the massof the population-were entirely under the jurisdiction of the lords of themanors; but, unlike Russian peasants, they could hold property and could not besold; and the fact that during the 16th and 17thcenturies peasants migrated to Poland from all parts of Europe tends to showthat at that time they enjoyed a relatively superior position.
天主教的影响
在我们讨论的大多数时期，罗马天主教会具有相当大的权力，并且支持国王反对施拉赫塔的分裂性倾向。非罗马天主教徒被称为持异议者，他们主要是在北方的新教徒和在东南部的俄罗斯东正教徒。波兰不能容忍持异议者，使得直到这一时期结束为止都有利于普鲁士和俄罗斯越过波兰的边界进行入侵，并且是使得波兰被瓜分的一个原因。
城镇因经济限制而受到削弱，出于大土地所有者的利益，城镇被切断了与农村地区的联系，他们在人口上和重要性上都逐渐减小，失去了自己的代表权，并且处于犹太人和其它外国人的控制下。包括了该国的大量人口的农民完全处于庄园主的管辖范围；但是与俄国的农民不同，他们可以拥有财产并且不得被买卖；而事实上在16和17世纪农民从全欧洲迁往波兰表明了在那时他们喜欢波兰农民较好的地位。
Internal Affairs
From 1386 to 1569 there had been a personalunion between Poland and Lithuania under the Jagiellon dynasty, for the purposeof defence against the Teutonic Knights. The defeat of the Teutonic Knightsraised up a new enemy on the eastern frontier of Poland, viz.Russia; and inorder to secure Poland and Lithuania against the latter, it was determined totransform the existing personal into a political union. Many things alreadypointed to this change. The religious tolerance shown by the Jagiellon Kingswas highly appreciated by the Lithuanians, and by the middle of the 16thcentury the administration and organization of Lithuania were similar to thoseof Poland. The King and the szlachta supported, whilst the big land-owneropposed, a political union; but the most influential of the latter were finallywon over, and at the Diet of Lublin in 1569 the union become law. It isessential to note that at the time it was really a voluntary union, and the oppositionto it was largely subsequent and due to other causes, such as the later Polishtreatment of the Russian Orthodox religion. Poland and Lithuania in this waybecome two halves of one state.
内政
从1386年至1569年之间以防御条顿骑士团为目的曾出现雅盖隆王朝统治下被波兰和立陶宛之间的个人联盟。条顿骑士团的失败使得波兰的东部边境兴起了一个新的敌人，即俄罗斯；为了保障波兰和立陶宛能够对抗后者，它决心将现有的个人同盟改变为政治联盟。许多事情已经指向了这一变化。雅盖隆王朝所显示的宗教宽容被立陶宛人高度赞赏，并且在16世纪中叶立陶宛的行政机关和组织已经与波兰十分类似。当大土地所有者反对政治联盟时国王和施拉赫塔支持它，并且更有影响力的后者最终胜利，使得1569年的卢布林会议将联盟确定为法律。有必要注意的一点是在当时它是一个自愿组成的联盟，而之后由于其他原因出现了大量的反对，如之后波兰对俄罗斯东正教的待遇。波兰和立陶宛就通过这种方式成为了一个国家的两个部分。
From 1386 to 1569 there had been a personalunion between Poland and Lithuania under the Jagiellon dynasty, for the purposeof defence against the Teutonic Knights. The defeat of the Teutonic Knightsraised up a new enemy on the eastern frontier of Poland, viz.Russia; and inorder to secure Poland and Lithuania against the latter, it was determined totransform the existing personal into a political union. Many things alreadypointed to this change. The religious tolerance shown by the Jagiellon Kingswas highly appreciated by the Lithuanians, and by the middle of the 16thcentury the administration and organization of Lithuania were similar to thoseof Poland. The King and the szlachta supported, whilst the big land-owneropposed, a political union; but the most influential of the latter were finallywon over, and at the Diet of Lublin in 1569 the union become law. It isessential to note that at the time it was really a voluntary union, and the oppositionto it was largely subsequent and due to other causes, such as the later Polishtreatment of the Russian Orthodox religion. Poland and Lithuania in this waybecome two halves of one state.
内政
从1386年至1569年之间以防御条顿骑士团为目的曾出现雅盖隆王朝统治下被波兰和立陶宛之间的个人联盟。条顿骑士团的失败使得波兰的东部边境兴起了一个新的敌人，即俄罗斯；为了保障波兰和立陶宛能够对抗后者，它决心将现有的个人同盟改变为政治联盟。许多事情已经指向了这一变化。雅盖隆王朝所显示的宗教宽容被立陶宛人高度赞赏，并且在16世纪中叶立陶宛的行政机关和组织已经与波兰十分类似。当大土地所有者反对政治联盟时国王和施拉赫塔支持它，并且更有影响力的后者最终胜利，使得1569年的卢布林会议将联盟确定为法律。有必要注意的一点是在当时它是一个自愿组成的联盟，而之后由于其他原因出现了大量的反对，如之后波兰对俄罗斯东正教的待遇。波兰和立陶宛就通过这种方式成为了一个国家的两个部分。
Whilethey had in common an elective king, a Senate of temporal and spiritual dignitaries,a Diet(which met at Warsaw), currency and the system of land tenure, eachretained its separate administration, army and laws. The whole state wasapparently an elective monarchy, but in reality a republic. Poland was known asthe Crown(Korona), Lithuania as the Principality(Kziestwo). The approximateboundaries have been given above.
尽管他们有一个共同的选举产生的国王，一个临时的元老院和一个教会首脑，一个在华沙召开的国会，货币和土地所有制，他们各自保持了分离的行政机关，军队和法律。整个国家表面上是选君政体，但事实上是一个共和国。波兰被称为是王国（Korona），立陶宛是一个公国（Kziestwo）。同时给出了一个大约的边界。
尽管他们有一个共同的选举产生的国王，一个临时的元老院和一个教会首脑，一个在华沙召开的国会，货币和土地所有制，他们各自保持了分离的行政机关，军队和法律。整个国家表面上是选君政体，但事实上是一个共和国。波兰被称为是王国（Korona），立陶宛是一个公国（Kziestwo）。同时给出了一个大约的边界。
The reignof Henry of Anjou(1573-75)was too short to be of much importance. But two circumstancesdeserve notice. The choice of Henry was the first instance of the danger to thecountry involved by a system of election which was not confined to Poles. Thisdanger was apparently realized by the Poles, but in countering it by theintroduction of the Pacta Conventa, which the king had to sign at his election,they were involved in a second danger. The passing of the Pacta Conventa,instead of being a mere check on a foreign King, was in the end the death-blow toall central authority, as it practically relieved the nation of its dutytowards the King if he attacked the nobles.
安茹的亨利统治时间太短以至于不重要。但是这时两种情况需要注意。亨利的当选是这个国家这种不仅限于波兰人的选君制度涉及危险的第一个例子。这种危险很显然地被波兰人认识到了，但是通过引入国王在选举时需要签署的“同意协议”（拉丁语Pacta Conventa），来对抗这种危险，这让他们卷入了另一个危险。“同意协议”的通过取代了单纯的对外国国王的检查，在最后给了中央权威以致命一击，因为它实际上在国王攻击贵族时就解除了国家对国王的义务。
安茹的亨利统治时间太短以至于不重要。但是这时两种情况需要注意。亨利的当选是这个国家这种不仅限于波兰人的选君制度涉及危险的第一个例子。这种危险很显然地被波兰人认识到了，但是通过引入国王在选举时需要签署的“同意协议”（拉丁语Pacta Conventa），来对抗这种危险，这让他们卷入了另一个危险。“同意协议”的通过取代了单纯的对外国国王的检查，在最后给了中央权威以致命一击，因为它实际上在国王攻击贵族时就解除了国家对国王的义务。
StephenBatory’s regin(1575-86)was a fairly successful attempt to form a strongmonarchy. In this he was supported by the Roman Catholic Church and the Jesuitsand by the able chancellor Zamoyski; and their united forces were able to checkthe growth of internal anarchy, e.g. the rebellion(rokosz) of the two magnates,the brothers Zborowski . At the same time, however, the King’s prerogative wasstill further weakened by his surrender of the right of appeal to the King’scourt and transference of the election of judges to the nobles.
· 斯蒂芬·巴托里的统治（1575-86）是一次相当成功的建立一个强大君主制的尝试。在这里他有罗马天主教会和耶稣会以及一个有能力的大臣扎莫伊斯基的支持，并且他们联合起来的力量可以制止国内混乱和无政府状态的滋长，例如两个贵族，兹波罗夫斯基兄弟的叛乱。然而在同时，国王的特权仍然由于他放弃了国王法院的审理上诉权并且将选举法官的权力转让给贵族而被进一步削弱。
· 斯蒂芬·巴托里的统治（1575-86）是一次相当成功的建立一个强大君主制的尝试。在这里他有罗马天主教会和耶稣会以及一个有能力的大臣扎莫伊斯基的支持，并且他们联合起来的力量可以制止国内混乱和无政府状态的滋长，例如两个贵族，兹波罗夫斯基兄弟的叛乱。然而在同时，国王的特权仍然由于他放弃了国王法院的审理上诉权并且将选举法官的权力转让给贵族而被进一步削弱。
Like his predecessor, Zygmunt the third(1587-1632) supported the Roman Catholic Reaction, not so much from bigotry as from the realization of the fact that the church was the one power left which was capable of checking the disruptive tendencies of the Reformation and the disorderliness of the nobles. The same influence was probably responsible for the Congress of Brest(1596), which created the Uniat Church in Galicia and the Ukraine. A portion of the Orthodox clergy, followed by the nobles and most of the bishops, agreed to a union with the Church of Rome, submitting to the Pope and accepting the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, while retaining the use of the vernacular(Little Russian) in their services, and other local privileges. But the towns, many Orthodox priests and the mass of the peasants still remained Orthodox. In the long run this religious difference, added to those which were economic of political, was fatal to Polish influence.
与他的前任一样，齐格蒙特三世（1587-1632）支持天主教保守主义，与事实相比并没有太多偏见的观念是，事实上教会是唯一能够制止宗教改革的破坏性倾向和贵族的骚乱的一种力量。有同样影响的可能是1596年的布雷斯特会议，在这个会议上创造了加利西亚和乌克兰的东仪天主教会。一部分东正教神职人员、贵族和大部分主教同意与罗马天主教会联合，服从教皇并且接受罗马天主教的教义，同时保留了在礼拜时使用本地方言（小俄罗斯语）和其它一些地方特权。但在城镇当中，许多东正教牧师和大量的农民始终保持了正统东正教。长远来看，这种宗教上的差异加上经济和政治上的差异，给波兰造成的影响是致命的。
与他的前任一样，齐格蒙特三世（1587-1632）支持天主教保守主义，与事实相比并没有太多偏见的观念是，事实上教会是唯一能够制止宗教改革的破坏性倾向和贵族的骚乱的一种力量。有同样影响的可能是1596年的布雷斯特会议，在这个会议上创造了加利西亚和乌克兰的东仪天主教会。一部分东正教神职人员、贵族和大部分主教同意与罗马天主教会联合，服从教皇并且接受罗马天主教的教义，同时保留了在礼拜时使用本地方言（小俄罗斯语）和其它一些地方特权。但在城镇当中，许多东正教牧师和大量的农民始终保持了正统东正教。长远来看，这种宗教上的差异加上经济和政治上的差异，给波兰造成的影响是致命的。
Zygmunt at various times tried to reformthe unworkable Polish constitution by substituting the decision of all mattersby a plurality of votes instead of by a unanimity impossible to obtain. But theopposition of the magnates, backed by the szlachta, was too strong.
在不同的时期里齐格蒙特试图通过用一个相对多数通过的投票机制取代那几乎不可实现的全体一致机制来重振那已失去效力的波兰宪法。但是由施拉赫塔支持的作为反对派的贵族实力过于强大了。
在不同的时期里齐格蒙特试图通过用一个相对多数通过的投票机制取代那几乎不可实现的全体一致机制来重振那已失去效力的波兰宪法。但是由施拉赫塔支持的作为反对派的贵族实力过于强大了。
ExternalAffairs
Stephen Batory’s foreign policy hadbeen directed towards the strengthening of the Polish power in the regionsnorth of the Black Sea and on the Baltic; and for this purpose he depended uponthe development of an efficient army with which to fight Turkey and the Tartarsin the south, and Russia and Sweden in the north. Batory was the first toorganize the irregular border troops in the Ukraine(called the Cossacks) intoregiments of cavalry, thus creating a precedent which was later on to beadopted on a successful scale by Russia. He further increased his army by ennoblingmany of his soldiers and even peasants. His Baltic policy, however, was interruptedby a Russian invasion of Livonia. The Russians were defeated in 1582, and Polandrecovered Livonia and gained the Duchy of Polotsk. Batory’s reign was too shortto be permanently beneficial.
外部事务
斯蒂芬·巴托里的外交政策一直旨在加强波兰在黑海北岸地区和波罗的海地区的力量，为了达到这个目的他依靠发展一直高效的陆军，用以在南方对抗土耳其和鞑靼人，在北方对抗俄罗斯和瑞典。巴托里是第一个将乌克兰的非正规边境部队（被称为哥萨克）编成了骑兵团的人，后来这一先例被俄罗斯成功的吸收。他通过将许多士兵甚至是农民封为贵族来进一步增强他的军队。然而他的波罗的海政策被一场俄罗斯对利沃尼亚的入侵而打断。俄罗斯人在1582年被打败，波兰人恢复了对利沃尼亚的统治并且获得了波洛茨克公国。巴托里的统治时间太短使得无法长期受益。
Stephen Batory’s foreign policy hadbeen directed towards the strengthening of the Polish power in the regionsnorth of the Black Sea and on the Baltic; and for this purpose he depended uponthe development of an efficient army with which to fight Turkey and the Tartarsin the south, and Russia and Sweden in the north. Batory was the first toorganize the irregular border troops in the Ukraine(called the Cossacks) intoregiments of cavalry, thus creating a precedent which was later on to beadopted on a successful scale by Russia. He further increased his army by ennoblingmany of his soldiers and even peasants. His Baltic policy, however, was interruptedby a Russian invasion of Livonia. The Russians were defeated in 1582, and Polandrecovered Livonia and gained the Duchy of Polotsk. Batory’s reign was too shortto be permanently beneficial.
外部事务
斯蒂芬·巴托里的外交政策一直旨在加强波兰在黑海北岸地区和波罗的海地区的力量，为了达到这个目的他依靠发展一直高效的陆军，用以在南方对抗土耳其和鞑靼人，在北方对抗俄罗斯和瑞典。巴托里是第一个将乌克兰的非正规边境部队（被称为哥萨克）编成了骑兵团的人，后来这一先例被俄罗斯成功的吸收。他通过将许多士兵甚至是农民封为贵族来进一步增强他的军队。然而他的波罗的海政策被一场俄罗斯对利沃尼亚的入侵而打断。俄罗斯人在1582年被打败，波兰人恢复了对利沃尼亚的统治并且获得了波洛茨克公国。巴托里的统治时间太短使得无法长期受益。
At the accessionof Zygmunt the third the general political situation was favorable to Poland.Germany was submerged in the Thirty Year’s War; Russia was torn with internaldissensions. Here was a chance for Poland to develop her control of the regionsadjoining the Black Sea, restore her influence on the Baltic and make herselfthe chief power in Central Europe. The chance was lost, not from lack of aconsistent policy on the part of Zygmunt, nor of brilliant generals(Zolkiewski,Chlodkiewicz and Koniecpolski), but from continual disorders among the szlachtaand the destructive powers of the magnates, who by their private raids ofteninvolved Poland in unnecessary wars. At the same time the dynastic struggleswith Sweden, beginning with the election of Zygmunt’s uncle as Charles theninth, caused a waste of resources which would have been invaluable elsewhere.
在齐格蒙特三世时整体的政治形势有利于波兰。德国深陷于三十年战争之中，俄罗斯被内部纠纷所撕裂。这对波兰来说是一个巩固其在黑海附近地区的统治、恢复其在波罗的海地区影响力并且使波兰成为中欧的主要力量的机会。这机会最终被错过了，既不是因为齐格蒙特缺乏一贯的政策，也不是因为缺乏有能力的将领（Zolkiewski，Chlodkiewicz和Koniecpolski），而是由于施拉赫塔的不断骚乱和贵族的破坏性力量，他们的私人劫掠经常使波兰卷入不必要的战争当中。同时由于齐格蒙德的舅舅查理九世的参选使得波兰卷入了与瑞典的王朝战争当中，这极大地浪费了在其它地方十分宝贵的资源。
在齐格蒙特三世时整体的政治形势有利于波兰。德国深陷于三十年战争之中，俄罗斯被内部纠纷所撕裂。这对波兰来说是一个巩固其在黑海附近地区的统治、恢复其在波罗的海地区影响力并且使波兰成为中欧的主要力量的机会。这机会最终被错过了，既不是因为齐格蒙特缺乏一贯的政策，也不是因为缺乏有能力的将领（Zolkiewski，Chlodkiewicz和Koniecpolski），而是由于施拉赫塔的不断骚乱和贵族的破坏性力量，他们的私人劫掠经常使波兰卷入不必要的战争当中。同时由于齐格蒙德的舅舅查理九世的参选使得波兰卷入了与瑞典的王朝战争当中，这极大地浪费了在其它地方十分宝贵的资源。
A war withTurkey followed; in which, though the Poles were not victorious, they did greatservice to Austria by blocking a Turkish invasion at a critical period in theThirty Years’ War. Peace was restored in 1621.
Meanwhile thesecond Swedish war had broken out. Charles the ninth’s successor, GustavusAdolphus, occupied Livonia in order to obtain the control of the Baltic Sea,and advanced into Poland as far as Thorn. By the intervention of France andEngland a six years’ truce was arranged at Altmark in 1629, the terms of whichallowed Sweden to keep her Livonian conquests and parts of the Baltic Shore,controlling the principal trade-routes.
It should benoted that Zygmunt the third in 1618 confirmed the right of the BrandenburgElectors to the succession in East Prussia.
紧接着是一场与土耳其的战争；在这场战争中，虽然波兰人没有取胜，但是他们在三十年战争的关键时期通过阻止土耳其人入侵给了奥地利很大援助。和平在1621年得到恢复。
与此同时第二次与瑞典的战争爆发了。查理九世的继承人古斯塔夫·阿道夫，为了得到波罗的海的控制权占领了利沃尼亚，并且在波兰境内披荆斩棘。在法国和英国的干涉下，与1629年在阿尔特马克签订了条约，其中允许瑞典保有她占领的利沃尼亚和部分波罗的海沿岸地区，控制了主要的贸易路线。
应当指出的是齐格蒙特三世在1618年确认了勃兰登堡选帝侯对东普鲁士的继承权。
Meanwhile thesecond Swedish war had broken out. Charles the ninth’s successor, GustavusAdolphus, occupied Livonia in order to obtain the control of the Baltic Sea,and advanced into Poland as far as Thorn. By the intervention of France andEngland a six years’ truce was arranged at Altmark in 1629, the terms of whichallowed Sweden to keep her Livonian conquests and parts of the Baltic Shore,controlling the principal trade-routes.
It should benoted that Zygmunt the third in 1618 confirmed the right of the BrandenburgElectors to the succession in East Prussia.
紧接着是一场与土耳其的战争；在这场战争中，虽然波兰人没有取胜，但是他们在三十年战争的关键时期通过阻止土耳其人入侵给了奥地利很大援助。和平在1621年得到恢复。
与此同时第二次与瑞典的战争爆发了。查理九世的继承人古斯塔夫·阿道夫，为了得到波罗的海的控制权占领了利沃尼亚，并且在波兰境内披荆斩棘。在法国和英国的干涉下，与1629年在阿尔特马克签订了条约，其中允许瑞典保有她占领的利沃尼亚和部分波罗的海沿岸地区，控制了主要的贸易路线。
应当指出的是齐格蒙特三世在1618年确认了勃兰登堡选帝侯对东普鲁士的继承权。
Period Two1632-1668 The Cossack Wars
Internal Affairs
Internally this periods is the characterizedby a political tendency towards decentralization-the country being divided intoa series of independent administrative units-by the growth of the power of themagnates and their systematic exploitation of the Ukraine, which involvedPoland in the Cossack Wars. The ambition of the magnates and the lawlessness ofthe szlachta paralysed the executive. Complete collapse was only prevented bythe conservative influence of the Roman Catholics and especially of theJesuits.
第二阶段 1632-1668 哥萨克战争时期
内政
这一时期内政上的特点是权力的分散和下放，由于贵族权势的增长和对乌克兰逐步的开发，这个国家分裂成了一系列独立的行政单位，这使得波兰卷入了哥萨克战争。贵族们的野心和施拉赫塔的目无法纪使得行政系统瘫痪。罗马天主教，尤其是耶稣会的保守影响，是阻止进一步崩溃的唯一因素。
Internal Affairs
Internally this periods is the characterizedby a political tendency towards decentralization-the country being divided intoa series of independent administrative units-by the growth of the power of themagnates and their systematic exploitation of the Ukraine, which involvedPoland in the Cossack Wars. The ambition of the magnates and the lawlessness ofthe szlachta paralysed the executive. Complete collapse was only prevented bythe conservative influence of the Roman Catholics and especially of theJesuits.
第二阶段 1632-1668 哥萨克战争时期
内政
这一时期内政上的特点是权力的分散和下放，由于贵族权势的增长和对乌克兰逐步的开发，这个国家分裂成了一系列独立的行政单位，这使得波兰卷入了哥萨克战争。贵族们的野心和施拉赫塔的目无法纪使得行政系统瘫痪。罗马天主教，尤其是耶稣会的保守影响，是阻止进一步崩溃的唯一因素。
Wladyslaw the fourth(1632-48)saw that the only hope ofPolish regeneration lay in increasing the power of the throne. This he hoped todo by means of a policy of concession at home and victory abroad. A victoriousforeign policy might enable him to strengthen the Polish Constitution uponSwedish or English lines. Unfortunately his foreign successes merely roused thejealousy of the szlachta, and from 1635 onwards they devoted their efforts to thwartingevery scheme of the King.
瓦迪斯瓦夫四世认为使波兰重生的唯一希望是增加国王的权力。他希望依靠对内的让步政策和对外的胜利来达到这个目的。一个成功的外交政策可能可以使他把波兰宪法的权力增加至瑞典或英国的标准。不幸的是，他在外交上的成功只是增加了施拉赫塔的嫉妒，并且自1635年起他们就致力于阻挠国王的每一个方案。
瓦迪斯瓦夫四世认为使波兰重生的唯一希望是增加国王的权力。他希望依靠对内的让步政策和对外的胜利来达到这个目的。一个成功的外交政策可能可以使他把波兰宪法的权力增加至瑞典或英国的标准。不幸的是，他在外交上的成功只是增加了施拉赫塔的嫉妒，并且自1635年起他们就致力于阻挠国王的每一个方案。